2.4.1.1 Gender stereotypes

Gender stereotypes constitute a crucial barrier.1 Based on stereotypes, it is expected from men to possess agentic traits such as being assertive, dominant,2 aggressive, decisive, competent and ambitious,3 whereas women are expected to have communal traits such as being kind, helpful, caregiving and nurturing.4

Agentic traits are believed to be required to execute management positions successfully.5 In that context, women are often seen as not possessing the necessary traits for management positions.6

Descriptive stereotypes about women’s ability as leaders may affect women’s career advancement to the corporate top when there is a perceived lack of fit between women’s communal traits and the traits required for management positions.7 This might lead to negative expectations about women’s success as managers and results in a bias in promotion decisions, performance appraisals, selection and advancement.8 Because of these biases, women will not be considered for these jobs9 or women will not be given the same opportunities as men in the selection process, which puts women in a disadvantaged position.10 The relationship between barriers 1.1 (gender stereotypes) and 1.2 (bias) is portrayed in Figure 2.3, arrow 1.

Descriptive stereotypes may also negatively influence women’s decisions to apply for a promotion or leadership positions because of their deemed ‘unfitness’ for these positions or because they fear to be ‘judged or treated in ways that confirm negative stereotypes’.11 Accordingly, due to these stereotypes, women’s career preferences (barrier 3) might be steered, and therefore stereotypes influence why women refrain from leadership positions. This relationship is shown in Figure 2.3, arrow 2.

Descriptive stereotypes might also lead to ascribing women’s success to external factors rather than women’s personal abilities.12 In this way, women are undervalued, suggesting that they are not appointed because of their skills, but because of other reasons.13 This phenomenon reinforces the stereotypical notion that women are not suitable for leadership. These findings show that gender stereotypes also devalue women and therefore influence the ‘devaluation of women’ barrier (barrier 2). This is shown in Figure 2.3, arrow 3.

Prescriptive stereotypes play a role when women have successfully acquired management positions. When they do so, women are seen as violating gender norms about how women should behave. This may result in dislike or disapproval for these women because of the perceived lack of fit.14 Prescriptive stereotypes influence a woman’s career because dislike will create more difficulties in becoming part of social networks and being promoted.15 Gender stereotypes, therefore, influence the ‘lack of access to networks’ barrier (barrier 6.1). This relationship is shown in Figure 2.3, arrow 4.

In general, gender stereotypes create a double bind for women: a woman is more likely to be considered incompetent, but even if she is considered successful, she may be disliked or face disapproval.